Slums sort of problem...

Adequate supplies of safe drinking water are internationally and universally recognised as a basic human need (Kimani-Murage and Ngindu 2007). Water is an indispensable commodity; every living creature needs water for its survival (Shahin, 2002). Nevertheless, there are still an unacceptable amount of people who do not have access to this basic human need. 

Increased urbanisation in Africa Is associated with an increasing amount of slums, all growing in size. With increased slum prevalence, comes increased poverty and inequality (AfDB, 2012). 

Slums, as defined by the UN-Habitat (2003)are characterised by three factors:

1. Overcrowding
2. Poor housing condition i.e.
• In a dangerous area, 
• Tenure insecurity
• Overcrowding due to lack of space
• Insufficient access to: 
3. Impermanent structure
• ‘Improved water at affordable prices and without extreme effort’, (Dagdeviren and Robertson, 2011)
• Sanitation, or a public or private toilet shared amongst a few people
• Other infrastructural services

In 2001, the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat) calculated there to be approximately 924 million people living in slums. Estimates suggest that this figure may rise to 1.5 billion by 2020 (Payne, 2005). 

Such rapid increases in slum populations pose a serious threat to access to safe water.

North African countries have a larger proportion of urban population (almost 48%), compared to SSA (almost 33%). Slum prevalence largely differs between North Africa and Sub Saharan Africa (SSA), with North Africa having significantly less slums, due to factors such as greater investment in infrastructure and upgrading settlements in urban areas, combined with better urban development strategies (AfDB, 2012). In contrast, SSA countries have inadequate infrastructure to sustain large masses of population in urban areas, which is exacerbated in areas of low income. Residents of slums are generally exposed to high mortality rates (higher than even rural areas) due to poor access to health services (Kimani-Murage and Ngindu 2007). Another reason why there are higher mortality rates is because of the poor sanitary practices (for example, the disposal of human excrement), which contaminate underground water sources

In Langas slum, Kenya, water is deemed unsafe to drink according to WHO guidelines, due to lack of water quality. A study undertaken by Kimani-Murage and Ngindu (2007) shows what residents of the slum perceive to be the most pertinent sources of contamination of water sources. These were the results:

• Children dipping dirty objects into the water source (34%)
• Dipping dirty containers into the water source for water collection (27%)
• Defecation of domestic animals surrounding the water sources (19%)
• People washing their clothes in the water sources (5%)
• And more…

However, none of the residents recognised the sever contamination in the water sources of the slum caused by the proximity of pit latrines to the wells. Therefore, you could assume that a lack of knowledge and education further exacerbates the problem of sanitation in urban slums.

Kimani-Murage and Ngindu (2007) explicitly state that pit latrines are not recommended where groundwater is the primary water source, unless there is a distance of at least 15m between the two (for reason that may be obvious to us, but not to people who unfortunately are living in slums with limited options). One of the characteristics of slums is by definition, that they are overcrowded. Therefore, it poses difficulties in that there is not adequate distance in slums between wells and put latrines, therefore allowing contamination. The required distance between the two is more likely to be achieved in rural areas, where there is more space availability. Furthermore, they argue that pit latrines should be at least 2m above the water table, to further decrease the risk of contamination of water sources.

One of the most influential critics, John F. C. Turner (1978), favoured ‘slum-upgrading’, which seemingly avoided high costs and inefficiency associated with public provision of housing. Instead, it focussed on governments improve the environment and surroundings of squatter settlements. Such improvements included footpath provision, waste collection, and water and sanitation services, amongst other things. Up until 1990s, these views shaped policies in the developing world. However, they were soon scrapped by the World Bank and other major development agencies due to increasing costs, ‘political corruption and delays in infrastructure development’. To replace this slum-upgrading scheme, they invested and focused on small-scale projects in some neighbourhoods and developed a low standard of infrastructure services (Dagdeviren and Robertson, 2011: 491).

More than one third of deaths in developing countries are a result of the consumption of water from contaminated sources, leading to severe diseases. As a result of this consumption, and the subsequent diseases they endure, people experience a decrease in their productive time by one-tenth (Kimani-Murage and Ngindu, 2007).

In order to improve the conditions of water in slums, there is an urgent need for ‘multidimensional interventions, including policies to address problems of tenure, urban planning, relocations and housing finance which are beyond the remit of the private sector’ (Dagdeviren and Robertson, 2011: 485).

References Used:

AfDB (2012) http://www.afdb.org/en/blogs/afdb-championing-inclusive-growth-across-africa/post/urbanization-in-africa-10143/.

Dagdeviren, H. and S. A. Robertson (2011) ‘Access to Water in the slums of Sub-Saharan Africa’, Development Policy Review, 29, 4, 485-505.

Kimani-Murage, E. W. and A. M. Ngindu (2007) ‘Quality of water the slum dwellers use: the case of a Kenyan Slum’, Journal of Urban Health, 84, 6, 829-838.

Payne, G. (2005) ‘Getting Ahead of the Game’, Environment and Urbanization, 17, 1, 135-45.

UN-Habitat (2003) The Challenge of Slums: Global Report on Human Settlements, London: Earthscan.